-The Enlightenment- the period of time following the Scientific Revolution, used reason & observation to attempt to solve & understand problems of society
-Intellectuals believed that human nature could be studied rationally and that their faults could be corrected (make educated men more rational, tolerant, and virtuous)
-Paris-Enlightenment capital
-“Permanent intellectual insurrection”- Newton’s and Descartes’ legacy of insight into the world of nature
-science: confidence in reason and a skeptical attitude toward accepted dogmas
-Voltaire: (Frenchman-Francois Marie Arouet) Elements of the Philosophy of Newton-1738-physics frees the mind from dogma (experiment provides liberation)
-Voltaire’s personal trinity: Newton, John Locke, and Francis Bacon
-Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters on the English (1734)-celebrated English toleration and mocked the French censorship
-Alchemy existed in chemistry while breakthroughs like Priestley isolating oxygen and Lavoisier coming close to explaining combustion continued
-mesmerism-“electrical” baths and treatments for wealthy (magnetic fields)
-Natural History- the science of the Earth’s development (geology, zoology, & botany)
-G.L. Buffon Natural History of the Earth (1749-1778): human beings evolved from beasts (ignored views of creation, did not attack them aka EVOLUTION) -Beyond Christianity
-“Enthusiasm”- religious superstition
-Pierre Bayle: Critical and Historical Dictionary (1697) advocated complete toleration
-Edict of Toleration 1781- issued by the Habsburg Emperor Joseph II/first time Catholic ruler recognized the rights of Protestants and Jews in his realm to worship freely, hold public office, and own property (dissolved monasteries to reduce Catholic influence)
-Deism- belief that recognized God as the creator, but held that the world, once created, functions according to natural laws w/out interference from God
-Philosophes-French intellectuals come from aristocracy and middle class (place human beings at the center of thought)
-Punishments: public apologies, prison, exile, and published work anonymously, books burnt
-Locke- Human nature is not fixed
-Social Sciences- study of culture, social institutions, and government structures for understanding led to sociology (foundations of social organization) and psychology (working of the human mind)
-Utilitarian-enlightenment ethics
-“Sapere aude”- motto of the Enlightenment: DARE TO KNOW
-Kant: German philosopher: Nonage- the inability to use one’s own understanding without another’s guidance
-Montesquieu introduced the perspective of relativism: analyzed institutions of government in relation to regional customs. LOVED BRITISH GOVERNMENT- Influential among the drafters of U.S. Constitution: checks and balances (ascribed a central role to aristocracies as checks on royal despotism) The Spirit of the Laws (1748) most influential work of social science, compared governments and societies
-attacks on mercantilism and government regulation
-Adam Smith’s critique of artificial restraints on individual economic initiative
-In France, physiocrats called for Freedom of grain-to operate according to Supply and Demand and for reforms in tax structure w/ a uniform and equitable land tax
-Diderot-affirmed the role of sexuality/advocate of “the natural man”
-ENCYCLOPEDIA!!!Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, & Occupations- an inventory of all fields of knowledge
-Editors felt purpose was to change the general way of thinking (endorsed absolute monarchy but against restrictions on trade and agriculture)sought an intellectual revolution
-28 volumes (1752-1772) 4,000 subscribers
-After allowing the first three volumes to appear, the French Government banned the Encyclopedia in 1759
-Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)- sharp challenge to Rousseau’s view of domestic women: believed that society kept women weak and artificial: emphasized need for educational reform
-Jean Jacques Rousseau-the FRENCH REVOLUTION’S FATHER (symbolism of liberty and equality) & critique of status quo and Enlightenment
-Obsessed with moral freedom: found society oppressive (against high culture: advocated a return to simplicity) SELF RELIANT CITIZENS!
-Treastise on Education (1762)à didn’t want “state of nature” or “anarchy”-basis of morality~ conscience not reason
-Rousseau fathered a child then abandoned it-contributed to his pre-occupation with morality and conscience
-Rousseau’s The Social Contract (1762) an ideal standard against which readers might measure their own society (French Revolution)-individuals might have a role in making the laws to which they submit
-SOCIAL CONTRACT: a quest for consensus as the best interests of all the citizens
-The commitment comes from conscience, which must battle w/ self interest
-“General Will”- an individual must do what one ought, not simply what one wants -“Individual Freedom” for Rousseau: derives from a political framework involving consent and participation as well as subordination of individual self-interest to the commonwealth
COSMOPOLITAN HIGH CULTURE:
-Cultural institutions (salons, freemasons, lodges) new media to create a “public realm” for the uninhibited exchange of ideas
-Mass of Europe’s peasants remained virtually untouched by these developments, insulated within their local environments and traditions
-The educated and wealthy, small but influential elites, enjoyed a sense of belonging to a common European civilization
-French=international language (ideas and literature could circulate easily past language barriers)
-Europeans-shared sense of common identity through travel literature and visiting foreign places -“Grand Tour”- highlights included London, Paris, Rome, and Vienna and to the ruins of antiquity
-The coffeehouse- where customers could chat or read
-The store front window display- added to the pleasures of city walking (stimulated consumer demand)
-The Republic of Letters- the sense of a cosmopolitan European culture. The phrase, introduced by 16th century French humanists, was popularized by Pierre Bayle (noted for religious toleration), News of the Republic of Letters. The realm of culture and ideas stretched across Europe’s political borders—an exclusive republic, limited to the educated (disregard social origins)
-Social institutions (salons)-composed in equal measures of nobles and commoners
-Salons- organized and led by wealthy noble women, sought to bring together important writers with the patronage (financial backers) they needed.
-The salon of Madame Tencin- helped launch Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws (1740s)
-The salon of Madame du Deffand (1760s)-forum in which philosophes could test their ideas
-Salons enlarged audiences and potential patronage
-elegant conversation and wit were necessary intellectual’s ideas must be understood
-Men took women seriously
-Freemasonry-operated in aura of secretiveness and symbolism, the Masonic lodges fostered a curious mixture of spirituality and rationalism.
-Originated as clubs or fraternities dedicated to humane values
-Torn by sectarian controversies
-Learned Academies- Ex. Lunar Society in Birmingham (forum for innovative British industrialists and engineers)-to state-sponsored academies in almost every capital of Southern and Central Europe-CONDUITS FOR ADVANCED SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS coming form Western Europe
-Began as literary institutes shifted to scientific and practical questions of commerce, agriculture, and adminstration
-Parallel shift in membership occurred; the local academies began as privileged corporations, dominated by the nobility of the region membership extended to commoners
PUBLISHING AND READING:
-Traveling libraries (1740s) -“Booksellers” or publishers-the intermediary between author and reader (Projects include: Encyclopedia and Dictionary)
-Dictionary-Samuel Johnson- a monumental lexicon that helped purify and standardize the English language
-18th centuryàPeriodicals-Goal: to raise the reader’s standards of morality and taste
-The Female Spectator (1744-1756) - Eliza Haywood advocated improvement in the treatment of women and
-Daily Newspaper- originated in England
-government censorship on newspapers in France -“Bad Books”-unemployed writers and desperate for money publishers/book sellers generated gossip pamphlets, pornography, and attacks on the government (low class writing)
-This was against the law in France so publishers located just across the French border-smuggled materials in along with banned books using a network of couriers and distributors
LITERATURE, MUSIC, AND ART: The Rise of the Novel in England:
-Writers and booksellers cultivated a growing middle-class reading public
-Samuel Richardson-series of letters telling the story, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) recounted the trials and tribulations of an honest if somewhat hypocritical servant girl.
-This melodrama broke from the standard forms and heroic subjects and dealt with recognizable types of people
-Comedy and adventure replaced melodrama in Shamela and Joseph Andrews
-The novel, emerging as a form of fiction that treated the development of personality in a realistic social context
-Focused on family life and everyday problems of love, marriage, and social relations
The Birth of Romantic Poetry:
-Neoclassical-art was meant to echo eternal standards of truth and beauty
-The audience for poetry was the narrowest segment of the reading public
-Romanticism-changed the nature of poetic composition and made this literary form, like the novel, a flexible vehicle of artistic expression
-Johann von Goethe-(1749-1832) he inspired a literary movement known as Sturm and Drang (Storm and Stress), which emphasized strong artistic emotions and gave early imitations of the Romantic temperament
-Faust (1831)
"He only earns his freedom and existence
Who daily conquers them anew?" last lines supporting his title of the last "universal man"
The Development of the Symphony in Austria:
-Beethoven-expression of creative genius
-Modified the standard formulas: increased the orchestra and added a large chorus
-Mozart, a composer for the Archbishop of Salzburg
-Haydn
The Social Context of Art:
-There were no notable innovations in the field of painting during most of the 18th century with the exception of Jacques-Louis David
-Neoclassicism remained popular
-Social context of painting was changing: the public was beginning to claim a role as the judge of talent in the visual arts
-David-won the greatest renown in his arena of public opinion during the 1780s
-Celebrated values of the ancient world: overwhelmed the public with his vivid imagery and emotional force of his compositions
-His paintings yearned civic virtue and patriotism
-Most engaged and triumphant painter of the French Revolution
-Few 18th century artists chose more mundane and “realistic” subjects/themes for their canvases ex. Greuze and Hogarth
POPUAR CULTURE:
-In the sector of society containing peasants, artisans, and the urban poor: culture meant recreation
-Literacy rate remained low
-Oral traditions of songs, folktales, and proverbs” expressed joy and hardships/dangers of ordinary people “Better a knave than a fool”
-Popular Literature: 3 forms Religious material (written simple w/miracles), Almanacs (“how to” book), entertainment (mixtures of fiction & history)
-Popular literature failed to address important issues (ex. Food shortages)-just accept
LITERARCY AND PRIMARY SCHOOLING:
-Protestant societies=high rate of literacy to read their bibles directly
-French study of a national literacy rate of: 1686 -21% to 1786- 37%
-Regional disparities: South of France had much lower rates than the north, and rural literacy rates lagged behind towns
-Largest gap- between men & women 47% & 27% - England: 60% & 40%
-Schooling: supposed to maintain social order and reinforce the family in promoting piety and decent behavior (RELIGIOUS AND MORAL VALUES)
-Schooling: largely demand-driven, the product of a community’s level of wealth and interest
-Habsburg monarchy seriously promoted primary education
-HabsburgGeneral SchoolOrdinance of 1774- authorized state subsidies in combination with local funds for the support of a school in almost every parish: attendance required
-normal schools-institutions intended to train future teachers
-Frederick II of Prussia tried to copy Habsburgs
SOCIABILITY AND RECREATION:
-taverns in working class neighborhoods: “Saint Monday”-took a day off from work
-France: wine England: gin (poor person’s drink)-Govt. levied a tax to make people more responsible
-Carnivals and festivals ex. Summer Harvest festival and catholic holidays in religious areas
-increased spectator sports like horse racing and boxing, and distanced the peasants from "refined" aristocrats
-The Enlightenment- the period of time following the Scientific Revolution, used reason & observation to attempt to solve & understand problems of society
-Intellectuals believed that human nature could be studied rationally and that their faults could be corrected (make educated men more rational, tolerant, and virtuous)
-Paris-Enlightenment capital
-“Permanent intellectual insurrection”- Newton’s and Descartes’ legacy of insight into the world of nature
-science: confidence in reason and a skeptical attitude toward accepted dogmas
-Voltaire: (Frenchman-Francois Marie Arouet) Elements of the Philosophy of Newton-1738-physics frees the mind from dogma (experiment provides liberation)
-Voltaire’s personal trinity: Newton, John Locke, and Francis Bacon
-Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters on the English (1734)-celebrated English toleration and mocked the French censorship
-Alchemy existed in chemistry while breakthroughs like Priestley isolating oxygen and Lavoisier coming close to explaining combustion continued
-mesmerism-“electrical” baths and treatments for wealthy (magnetic fields)
-Natural History- the science of the Earth’s development (geology, zoology, & botany)
-G.L. Buffon Natural History of the Earth (1749-1778): human beings evolved from beasts (ignored views of creation, did not attack them aka EVOLUTION)
-Beyond Christianity
-“Enthusiasm”- religious superstition
-Pierre Bayle: Critical and Historical Dictionary (1697) advocated complete toleration
-Edict of Toleration 1781- issued by the Habsburg Emperor Joseph II/first time Catholic ruler recognized the rights of Protestants and Jews in his realm to worship freely, hold public office, and own property (dissolved monasteries to reduce Catholic influence)
-Deism- belief that recognized God as the creator, but held that the world, once created, functions according to natural laws w/out interference from God
-Philosophes-French intellectuals come from aristocracy and middle class (place human beings at the center of thought)
-Punishments: public apologies, prison, exile, and published work anonymously, books burnt
-Locke- Human nature is not fixed
-Social Sciences- study of culture, social institutions, and government structures for understanding led to sociology (foundations of social organization) and psychology (working of the human mind)
-Utilitarian-enlightenment ethics
-“Sapere aude”- motto of the Enlightenment: DARE TO KNOW
-Kant: German philosopher: Nonage- the inability to use one’s own understanding without another’s guidance
-Montesquieu introduced the perspective of relativism: analyzed institutions of government in relation to regional customs. LOVED BRITISH GOVERNMENT- Influential among the drafters of U.S. Constitution: checks and balances (ascribed a central role to aristocracies as checks on royal despotism) The Spirit of the Laws (1748) most influential work of social science, compared governments and societies
-attacks on mercantilism and government regulation
-Adam Smith’s critique of artificial restraints on individual economic initiative
-In France, physiocrats called for Freedom of grain-to operate according to Supply and Demand and for reforms in tax structure w/ a uniform and equitable land tax
-Diderot-affirmed the role of sexuality/advocate of “the natural man”
-ENCYCLOPEDIA!!! Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, & Occupations- an inventory of all fields of knowledge
-Editors felt purpose was to change the general way of thinking (endorsed absolute monarchy but against restrictions on trade and agriculture)sought an intellectual revolution
-28 volumes (1752-1772) 4,000 subscribers
-After allowing the first three volumes to appear, the French Government banned the Encyclopedia in 1759
-Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)- sharp challenge to Rousseau’s view of domestic women: believed that society kept women weak and artificial: emphasized need for educational reform
-Jean Jacques Rousseau-the FRENCH REVOLUTION’S FATHER (symbolism of liberty and equality) & critique of status quo and Enlightenment
-Obsessed with moral freedom: found society oppressive (against high culture: advocated a return to simplicity) SELF RELIANT CITIZENS!
-Treastise on Education (1762)à didn’t want “state of nature” or “anarchy”-basis of morality~ conscience not reason
-Rousseau fathered a child then abandoned it-contributed to his pre-occupation with morality and conscience
-Rousseau’s The Social Contract (1762) an ideal standard against which readers might measure their own society (French Revolution)-individuals might have a role in making the laws to which they submit
-SOCIAL CONTRACT: a quest for consensus as the best interests of all the citizens
-The commitment comes from conscience, which must battle w/ self interest
-“General Will”- an individual must do what one ought, not simply what one wants
-“Individual Freedom” for Rousseau: derives from a political framework involving consent and participation as well as subordination of individual self-interest to the commonwealth
COSMOPOLITAN HIGH CULTURE:
-Cultural institutions (salons, freemasons, lodges) new media to create a “public realm” for the uninhibited exchange of ideas
-Mass of Europe’s peasants remained virtually untouched by these developments, insulated within their local environments and traditions
-The educated and wealthy, small but influential elites, enjoyed a sense of belonging to a common European civilization
-French=international language (ideas and literature could circulate easily past language barriers)
-Europeans-shared sense of common identity through travel literature and visiting foreign places
-“Grand Tour”- highlights included London, Paris, Rome, and Vienna and to the ruins of antiquity
-The coffeehouse- where customers could chat or read
-The store front window display- added to the pleasures of city walking (stimulated consumer demand)
-The Republic of Letters- the sense of a cosmopolitan European culture. The phrase, introduced by 16th century French humanists, was popularized by Pierre Bayle (noted for religious toleration), News of the Republic of Letters. The realm of culture and ideas stretched across Europe’s political borders—an exclusive republic, limited to the educated (disregard social origins)
-Social institutions (salons)-composed in equal measures of nobles and commoners
-Salons- organized and led by wealthy noble women, sought to bring together important writers with the patronage (financial backers) they needed.
-The salon of Madame Tencin- helped launch Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws (1740s)
-The salon of Madame du Deffand (1760s)-forum in which philosophes could test their ideas
-Salons enlarged audiences and potential patronage
-elegant conversation and wit were necessary intellectual’s ideas must be understood
-Men took women seriously
-Freemasonry-operated in aura of secretiveness and symbolism, the Masonic lodges fostered a curious mixture of spirituality and rationalism.
-Originated as clubs or fraternities dedicated to humane values
-Torn by sectarian controversies
-Learned Academies- Ex. Lunar Society in Birmingham (forum for innovative British industrialists and engineers)-to state-sponsored academies in almost every capital of Southern and Central Europe-CONDUITS FOR ADVANCED SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS coming form Western Europe
-Began as literary institutes shifted to scientific and practical questions of commerce, agriculture, and adminstration
-Parallel shift in membership occurred; the local academies began as privileged corporations, dominated by the nobility of the region membership extended to commoners
PUBLISHING AND READING:
-Traveling libraries (1740s)
-“Booksellers” or publishers-the intermediary between author and reader (Projects include: Encyclopedia and Dictionary)
-Dictionary-Samuel Johnson- a monumental lexicon that helped purify and standardize the English language
-18th centuryàPeriodicals-Goal: to raise the reader’s standards of morality and taste
-The Female Spectator (1744-1756) - Eliza Haywood advocated improvement in the treatment of women and
-Daily Newspaper- originated in England
-government censorship on newspapers in France
-“Bad Books”-unemployed writers and desperate for money publishers/book sellers generated gossip pamphlets, pornography, and attacks on the government (low class writing)
-This was against the law in France so publishers located just across the French border-smuggled materials in along with banned books using a network of couriers and distributors
LITERATURE, MUSIC, AND ART:
The Rise of the Novel in England:
-Writers and booksellers cultivated a growing middle-class reading public
-Samuel Richardson-series of letters telling the story, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) recounted the trials and tribulations of an honest if somewhat hypocritical servant girl.
-This melodrama broke from the standard forms and heroic subjects and dealt with recognizable types of people
-Comedy and adventure replaced melodrama in Shamela and Joseph Andrews
-The novel, emerging as a form of fiction that treated the development of personality in a realistic social context
-Focused on family life and everyday problems of love, marriage, and social relations
The Birth of Romantic Poetry:
-Neoclassical-art was meant to echo eternal standards of truth and beauty
-The audience for poetry was the narrowest segment of the reading public
-Romanticism-changed the nature of poetic composition and made this literary form, like the novel, a flexible vehicle of artistic expression
-Johann von Goethe-(1749-1832) he inspired a literary movement known as Sturm and Drang (Storm and Stress), which emphasized strong artistic emotions and gave early imitations of the Romantic temperament
-Faust (1831)
"He only earns his freedom and existence
Who daily conquers them anew?" last lines supporting his title of the last "universal man"
The Development of the Symphony in Austria:
-Beethoven-expression of creative genius
-Modified the standard formulas: increased the orchestra and added a large chorus
-Mozart, a composer for the Archbishop of Salzburg
-Haydn
The Social Context of Art:
-There were no notable innovations in the field of painting during most of the 18th century with the exception of Jacques-Louis David
-Neoclassicism remained popular
-Social context of painting was changing: the public was beginning to claim a role as the judge of talent in the visual arts
-David-won the greatest renown in his arena of public opinion during the 1780s
-Celebrated values of the ancient world: overwhelmed the public with his vivid imagery and emotional force of his compositions
-His paintings yearned civic virtue and patriotism
-Most engaged and triumphant painter of the French Revolution
-Few 18th century artists chose more mundane and “realistic” subjects/themes for their canvases ex. Greuze and Hogarth
POPUAR CULTURE:
-In the sector of society containing peasants, artisans, and the urban poor: culture meant recreation
-Literacy rate remained low
-Oral traditions of songs, folktales, and proverbs” expressed joy and hardships/dangers of ordinary people “Better a knave than a fool”
-Popular Literature: 3 forms Religious material (written simple w/miracles), Almanacs (“how to” book), entertainment (mixtures of fiction & history)
-Popular literature failed to address important issues (ex. Food shortages)-just accept
LITERARCY AND PRIMARY SCHOOLING:
-Protestant societies=high rate of literacy to read their bibles directly
-French study of a national literacy rate of: 1686 -21% to 1786- 37%
-Regional disparities: South of France had much lower rates than the north, and rural literacy rates lagged behind towns
-Largest gap- between men & women 47% & 27% - England: 60% & 40%
-Schooling: supposed to maintain social order and reinforce the family in promoting piety and decent behavior (RELIGIOUS AND MORAL VALUES)
-Schooling: largely demand-driven, the product of a community’s level of wealth and interest
-Habsburg monarchy seriously promoted primary education
-Habsburg General School Ordinance of 1774- authorized state subsidies in combination with local funds for the support of a school in almost every parish: attendance required
-normal schools-institutions intended to train future teachers
-Frederick II of Prussia tried to copy Habsburgs
SOCIABILITY AND RECREATION:
-taverns in working class neighborhoods: “Saint Monday”-took a day off from work
-France: wine England: gin (poor person’s drink)-Govt. levied a tax to make people more responsible
-Carnivals and festivals ex. Summer Harvest festival and catholic holidays in religious areas
-increased spectator sports like horse racing and boxing, and distanced the peasants from "refined" aristocrats